@font-face{font-family:Playfair Display;font-style:normal;font-display:swap;font-weight:700;src:url(/_astro/playfair-display-latin-700-normal.CuDiGg7c.woff2)format("woff2"),url(/_astro/playfair-display-latin-700-normal.Bc_1Q1cG.woff)format("woff")}@font-face{font-family:"Source Serif 4";font-style:normal;font-display:swap;font-weight:400;src:url(/_astro/source-serif-4-latin-400-normal.DJ5YJwmz.woff2)format("woff2"),url(/_astro/source-serif-4-latin-400-normal.Dn3IlU-Z.woff)format("woff")}@font-face{font-family:"Source Serif 4";font-style:italic;font-display:swap;font-weight:400;src:url(/_astro/source-serif-4-latin-400-italic.0j97Jm6B.woff2)format("woff2"),url(/_astro/source-serif-4-latin-400-italic.Dv9jnFA_.woff)format("woff")}@font-face{font-family:"Source Serif 4";font-style:normal;font-display:swap;font-weight:600;src:url(/_astro/source-serif-4-latin-600-normal.DouSKlru.woff2)format("woff2"),url(/_astro/source-serif-4-latin-600-normal.DMD1h6_f.woff)format("woff")}@font-face{font-family:"Source Serif 4";font-style:normal;font-display:swap;font-weight:700;src:url(/_astro/source-serif-4-latin-700-normal.CGGdTIBe.woff2)format("woff2"),url(/_astro/source-serif-4-latin-700-normal.3V4Pv1hj.woff)format("woff")}:root{--paper:#f3efe6;--paper-2:#e8e2d3;--ink:#1a1714;--ink-soft:#5a5247;--rule:#c9c0ae;--accent:#a5281b;--accent-ink:#fff;--band:#1a1714;--on-band:#f3efe6;--band-accent:#f0917f;--e-ancient:#8a5a12;--e-medieval:#2c4a7a;--e-early:#2f6b4b;--e-modern:#a5281b;--logo-dot:#d23a28;--display:"Playfair Display", "Iowan Old Style", Georgia, serif;--text:"Source Serif 4", "Iowan Old Style", Georgia, serif;--measure:42.5rem;--container:75rem;--gutter:2.5rem}@media (prefers-color-scheme:dark){:root:not([data-theme=light]){--paper:#16130f;--paper-2:#211c16;--ink:#ede6d6;--ink-soft:#b3a791;--rule:#3a3328;--accent:#ee7c69;--accent-ink:#101010;--band:#0d0b09;--on-band:#ede6d6;--band-accent:#ee7c69;--e-ancient:#d9a24a;--e-medieval:#8faee0;--e-early:#7cc39b;--e-modern:#ee7c69}}:root[data-theme=dark]{--paper:#16130f;--paper-2:#211c16;--ink:#ede6d6;--ink-soft:#b3a791;--rule:#3a3328;--accent:#ee7c69;--accent-ink:#101010;--band:#0d0b09;--on-band:#ede6d6;--band-accent:#ee7c69;--e-ancient:#d9a24a;--e-medieval:#8faee0;--e-early:#7cc39b;--e-modern:#ee7c69}*,:before,:after{box-sizing:border-box}html{-webkit-text-size-adjust:100%}body{background:var(--paper);color:var(--ink);font-family:var(--text);flex-direction:column;min-height:100vh;margin:0;font-size:1.0625rem;line-height:1.65;display:flex}main{flex:1 0 auto}h1,h2,h3,h4{font-family:var(--display);letter-spacing:-.01em;color:var(--ink);font-variant-numeric:lining-nums;margin:0;font-weight:700;line-height:1.15}p,ul,ol,dl,dd,figure{margin:0}ul,ol{padding:0;list-style:none}img,svg{max-width:100%}a{color:var(--accent);text-decoration:none}a:hover{text-decoration:underline}:focus-visible{outline:3px solid var(--accent);outline-offset:2px}.container{width:100%;max-width:var(--container);padding:0 var(--gutter);margin:0 auto}.visually-hidden{clip:rect(0 0 0 0);white-space:nowrap;width:1px;height:1px;overflow:hidden;position:absolute!important}.skip-link{background:var(--ink);color:var(--paper);z-index:10;padding:.6rem 1rem;position:absolute;top:-4rem;left:1rem}.skip-link:focus{top:1rem}.meta{color:var(--ink-soft);font-size:.84rem}.soft{color:var(--ink-soft)}.dot{background:var(--ink-soft);width:9px;height:9px;margin-right:7px;display:inline-block}.dot--ancient{background:var(--e-ancient)}.dot--medieval{background:var(--e-medieval)}.dot--early{background:var(--e-early)}.dot--modern{background:var(--e-modern)}.img-ph{background-color:var(--paper-2);border:1px solid var(--rule);width:100%;min-height:80px;color:var(--ink-soft);background-image:repeating-linear-gradient(135deg, transparent 0 16px, var(--rule) 16px 17px);align-items:flex-end;padding:8px 10px;font-size:.76rem;display:flex;position:relative}.img-ph span{background:var(--paper-2);padding:1px 6px}.r169{aspect-ratio:16/9}.r32{aspect-ratio:3/2}.brand{color:var(--ink);line-height:0;display:inline-block}.brand:hover{text-decoration:none}.brand svg{width:auto;height:62px;display:block}.brand--sm svg{height:28px}.masthead{border-bottom:3px double var(--ink)}.tagline{text-align:center;color:var(--ink-soft);border-bottom:1px solid var(--rule);padding:8px 0;font-size:.875rem;font-style:italic}.masthead__brand{justify-content:center;padding:18px 0 0;display:flex}.nav{border-top:1px solid var(--ink);justify-content:center;gap:24px;margin-top:12px;padding:10px 0;font-size:.94rem;display:flex}.nav a{color:var(--ink)}.nav a:hover,.nav a[aria-current=page]{color:var(--accent);text-decoration:none}.nav a[aria-current=page]{text-underline-offset:4px;text-decoration:underline}.section-label{font-family:var(--text);letter-spacing:.14em;text-transform:uppercase;border-top:3px double var(--ink);border-bottom:1px solid var(--ink);margin:0 0 18px;padding:6px 0;font-size:.8125rem;font-weight:700}.tag-list{flex-wrap:wrap;gap:0 8px;display:flex}.tag{color:var(--accent);font-size:.82rem;font-style:italic;line-height:1.5}.tag+.tag:before{content:"·";color:var(--ink-soft);margin-right:8px;font-style:normal}.tag[aria-current=page]{color:var(--ink);font-weight:600}.btn{font-family:var(--text);background:var(--accent);color:var(--accent-ink);cursor:pointer;border:0;border-radius:0;padding:12px 22px;font-size:.94rem;font-weight:600;line-height:1.2;display:inline-block}.btn:hover{filter:brightness(1.08);text-decoration:none}.standfirst{color:var(--ink-soft);font-size:1.18em;line-height:1.5}.ribbon{border-bottom:1px solid var(--rule);align-items:center;gap:22px;padding:14px 0;font-size:.875rem;display:flex}.ribbon__end{color:var(--ink-soft);font-size:.78rem}.ribbon a{color:var(--ink);border-bottom:3px solid var(--ink-soft);padding-bottom:2px}.ribbon a:hover{color:var(--accent);text-decoration:none}.ribbon a[data-era=ancient]{border-bottom-color:var(--e-ancient)}.ribbon a[data-era=medieval]{border-bottom-color:var(--e-medieval)}.ribbon a[data-era=early-modern]{border-bottom-color:var(--e-early)}.ribbon a[data-era=modern]{border-bottom-color:var(--e-modern)}.era-cols{grid-template-columns:repeat(4,minmax(0,1fr));gap:24px;display:grid}.era-col{border-top:4px solid var(--ink-soft);padding-top:12px}.era-col[data-era=ancient]{border-top-color:var(--e-ancient)}.era-col[data-era=medieval]{border-top-color:var(--e-medieval)}.era-col[data-era=early-modern]{border-top-color:var(--e-early)}.era-col[data-era=modern]{border-top-color:var(--e-modern)}.era-col h3{font-size:1.3rem}.era-col .years{color:var(--ink-soft);margin:2px 0 10px;font-size:.82rem}.era-col li{margin:0 0 8px;font-size:.94em;line-height:1.35}.era-col li a{color:var(--ink)}.era-col li a:hover{color:var(--accent)}.front{grid-template-columns:2fr 1fr;padding:28px 0;display:grid}.front__lead{border-right:1px solid var(--rule);padding-right:32px}.front__lead h2{margin:10px 0 12px;font-size:2.9rem}.front__lead h2 a,.story h3 a{color:var(--ink)}.front__lead h2 a:hover,.story h3 a:hover{color:var(--accent);text-decoration:none}.front__side{padding-left:32px}.front__side .story{border-bottom:1px solid var(--rule);padding:16px 0}.front__side .story:first-child{padding-top:0}.front__side .story:last-child{border-bottom:0}.story h3{margin:4px 0 6px;font-size:1.38rem}.story p{color:var(--ink-soft);font-size:.94em}.trio{border-top:3px double var(--ink);grid-template-columns:repeat(3,minmax(0,1fr));padding:24px 0 8px;display:grid}.trio .story{border-left:1px solid var(--rule);padding:0 26px}.trio .story:first-child{border-left:0;padding-left:0}.trio .story h3{font-size:1.25rem}.browse{padding:32px 0 56px}.band{background:var(--band);color:var(--on-band);padding:44px 0}.band__inner{grid-template-columns:1.2fr 1fr;align-items:center;gap:40px;display:grid}.band h2{color:var(--on-band);font-size:1.9rem}.band p{margin-top:8px;font-size:.95em}.band a{color:var(--band-accent);text-decoration:underline}.subscribe{flex-wrap:wrap;gap:10px;display:flex}.subscribe label{flex:1 0 100%;font-size:.82rem}.subscribe input[type=email]{min-width:0;font:inherit;letter-spacing:0;color:var(--on-band);border:1px solid var(--on-band);background:0 0;border-radius:0;flex:200px;padding:11px 12px;font-size:.94rem}.subscribe input::placeholder{color:var(--on-band);opacity:.7}.subscribe .btn{background:var(--band-accent);color:var(--band)}.hp{position:absolute;left:-9999px}.site-footer{border-top:1px solid var(--rule);padding:36px 0 28px;font-size:.92em}.footer-cols{grid-template-columns:1.4fr 1fr 1fr;gap:32px;display:grid}.footer-cols li{margin:0 0 6px}.site-footer a{color:var(--ink)}.site-footer a:hover{color:var(--accent)}.site-footer .brand{margin-bottom:8px}.fine{border-top:1px solid var(--rule);color:var(--ink-soft);margin-top:26px;padding-top:16px;font-size:.78rem}.fine a{color:var(--ink-soft);text-decoration:underline}.article-col{max-width:var(--measure);margin:0 auto}.breadcrumbs{color:var(--ink-soft);padding:22px 0 12px;font-size:.84rem}.breadcrumbs a{color:var(--ink-soft);text-decoration:underline}.article-meta{flex-wrap:wrap;align-items:baseline;gap:6px 14px;display:flex}.article-meta .era{color:var(--ink-soft);font-size:.84rem}.article-title{margin:14px 0;font-size:3.25rem}.article-col .standfirst{margin:0 0 14px}.byline{border-top:1px solid var(--rule);border-bottom:1px solid var(--rule);color:var(--ink-soft);flex-wrap:wrap;gap:6px 18px;margin:16px 0 24px;padding:12px 0;font-size:.875rem;display:flex}.byline b{color:var(--ink);font-weight:600}.hero{margin:0 0 30px}.caption{color:var(--ink-soft);margin-top:8px;font-size:.78rem}.prose p{margin:0 0 1.1em}.prose h2{margin:1.5em 0 .5em;font-size:1.85rem}.prose h3{margin:1.4em 0 .4em;font-size:1.45rem}.prose a{text-decoration:underline}.prose sup{font-size:.7em;line-height:0}.prose>p:first-child:first-letter{float:left;font-family:var(--display);color:var(--accent);padding:.06em .1em 0 0;font-size:4.3em;font-weight:700;line-height:.82}.key-dates{background:var(--paper-2);border-top:4px solid var(--accent);margin:34px 0;padding:22px 24px}.key-dates h2{margin-bottom:12px;font-size:1.4rem}.key-dates dl{grid-template-columns:auto 1fr;gap:8px 18px;display:grid}.key-dates dt{white-space:nowrap;font-size:.94em;font-weight:600}.key-dates dd{font-size:.94em}.book-card{border:1px solid var(--rule);background:var(--paper-2);grid-template-columns:84px 1fr;gap:18px;margin:0 0 10px;padding:18px;display:grid}.book-card__cover{background:var(--band);width:84px;height:118px;color:var(--on-band);text-align:center;justify-content:center;align-items:center;padding:6px;font-size:.7rem;display:flex}.book-card h3{margin-bottom:4px;font-size:1.25rem}.book-card p{color:var(--ink-soft);margin-bottom:10px;font-size:.94em}.affiliate-notice{color:var(--ink-soft);margin:8px 0 26px;font-size:.78rem}.affiliate-notice a{text-decoration:underline}.sources{margin:34px 0}.sources li{border-bottom:1px solid var(--rule);gap:12px;padding:9px 0;font-size:.94em;display:flex}.sources .n{color:var(--accent);min-width:18px;font-weight:600}.donate-note{color:var(--ink-soft);border-top:1px solid var(--rule);margin-top:26px;padding:14px 0;font-size:.875rem}.donate-note a{text-decoration:underline}.related{margin:40px 0 44px}.related__grid{grid-template-columns:repeat(4,minmax(0,1fr));gap:24px;display:grid}.related h3{margin:6px 0 4px;font-size:1.15rem}.related h3 a{color:var(--ink)}.related h3 a:hover{color:var(--accent);text-decoration:none}@media (width<=720px){:root{--gutter:1.125rem}.brand svg{height:42px}.brand--sm svg{height:26px}.tagline{font-size:.75rem}.masthead__brand{padding-top:12px}.nav{white-space:nowrap;justify-content:safe center;gap:16px;margin-top:2px;padding:8px 0;font-size:.875rem;overflow-x:auto}.ribbon{white-space:nowrap;gap:14px;font-size:.8rem;overflow-x:auto}.front{grid-template-columns:1fr;padding:18px 0}.front__lead{border-right:0;border-bottom:1px solid var(--rule);padding-bottom:18px;padding-right:0}.front__lead h2{font-size:2rem}.front__side{padding-top:14px;padding-left:0}.trio{grid-template-columns:1fr;padding:18px 0 4px}.trio .story{border-left:0;padding:0 0 16px}.era-cols{grid-template-columns:1fr;gap:20px}.band{padding:30px 0}.band__inner{grid-template-columns:1fr;gap:16px}.band h2{font-size:1.5rem}.footer-cols{grid-template-columns:1fr 1fr;gap:22px}.footer-cols>div:first-child{grid-column:1/-1}.article-title{font-size:2.05rem}.prose h2{font-size:1.5rem}.key-dates{margin:24px 0;padding:16px}.related__grid{grid-template-columns:1fr;gap:14px}}@media (prefers-reduced-motion:reduce){*{scroll-behavior:auto!important;transition:none!important;animation:none!important}}.era a{color:var(--ink-soft)}.era a:hover{color:var(--accent)}.era-col h3 a{color:inherit}.story .meta{margin:0}.lead-meta{margin-top:14px}.figure img,.figure picture{width:100%;height:auto;display:block}.figure{margin:0 0 30px}.caption a{color:var(--ink-soft);text-decoration:underline}.book-card__img{object-fit:cover;width:84px;height:118px}.callout{background:var(--paper-2);border-left:4px solid var(--accent);margin:1.6em 0;padding:16px 20px}.callout>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.callout__title{font-weight:700;margin-bottom:.4em!important}.prose ul,.prose ol{margin:0 0 1.1em;padding-left:1.4em}.prose ul{list-style:outside}.prose ol{list-style:decimal}.prose li{margin:0 0 .4em}.prose blockquote{border-left:3px solid var(--rule);color:var(--ink-soft);margin:1.4em 0;padding:0 0 0 1.2em;font-style:italic}.prose hr{border:0;border-top:3px double var(--ink);margin:2em 0}.prose img{height:auto}.prose table{border-collapse:collapse;width:100%;font-size:.94em}.prose th,.prose td{border-bottom:1px solid var(--rule);text-align:left;padding:8px 10px}.draft-banner{padding:10px var(--gutter);text-align:center;background:var(--accent);color:var(--accent-ink);margin:0;font-size:.9rem}.draft-chip{color:var(--accent);font-weight:600}.corrections{margin:34px 0}.corrections li{border-bottom:1px solid var(--rule);padding:8px 0;font-size:.94em}.subscribe__consent{flex:1 0 100%;margin:4px 0 0;font-size:.82rem}.subscribe-soon{margin:0;font-style:italic}.list-ad{list-style:none}.page-head{padding:26px 0 8px}.page-head .breadcrumbs{padding-top:0}.page-title{margin:6px 0 10px;font-size:3rem}.page-lede{color:var(--ink-soft);max-width:var(--measure);font-size:1.18em;line-height:1.5}.page-body{padding:8px 0 56px}.page-col{max-width:var(--measure)}.page-col .prose h2{font-size:1.5rem}.article-list{display:grid}.list-item{border-top:1px solid var(--rule);padding:22px 0}.list-item:first-child{border-top:0;padding-top:6px}.list-item h2{margin:6px 0;font-size:1.6rem}.list-item h2 a{color:var(--ink)}.list-item h2 a:hover{color:var(--accent);text-decoration:none}.list-item .meta{margin:0}.list-item__desc{color:var(--ink-soft);max-width:var(--measure);margin:0 0 8px}.pagination{border-top:3px double var(--ink);justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;gap:22px;margin-top:18px;padding:24px 0 8px;font-size:.94rem;display:flex}.pagination__off{color:var(--ink-soft);opacity:.6}.empty{background:var(--paper-2);border-top:4px solid var(--accent);margin:28px 0;padding:34px 26px}.empty h2{margin-bottom:8px;font-size:1.7rem}.empty p{color:var(--ink-soft);max-width:var(--measure);margin-bottom:16px}.empty .subscribe{max-width:34rem}.empty .subscribe input[type=email]{color:var(--ink);border-color:var(--ink)}.empty .subscribe input::placeholder{color:var(--ink-soft)}.empty .subscribe .btn{background:var(--accent);color:var(--accent-ink)}.empty .subscribe__consent{color:var(--ink-soft)}.tag-index{grid-template-columns:repeat(3,minmax(0,1fr));gap:0 32px;display:grid}.tag-index h2{font-size:1.3rem}.tag-index li{border-bottom:1px solid var(--rule);justify-content:space-between;gap:12px;padding:7px 0;display:flex}.tag-group{margin-bottom:30px}.era-index{padding:8px 0 40px}.notice{background:var(--paper-2);border-left:4px solid var(--accent);margin:0 0 24px;padding:14px 18px;font-size:.94em}.operator{background:var(--paper-2);margin-top:1.4em;padding:14px 18px;font-size:.94em}@media (width<=720px){.page-title{font-size:2.05rem}.list-item h2{font-size:1.35rem}.tag-index{grid-template-columns:1fr}}.front--solo{grid-template-columns:1fr}.front--solo .front__lead{border-right:0;padding-right:0}.prose figure{margin:1.6em 0 1.8em}.prose figure img{width:100%;height:auto;display:block}.prose h2#questions-and-answers{font-family:var(--text);letter-spacing:.14em;text-transform:uppercase;border-top:3px double var(--ink);border-bottom:1px solid var(--ink);margin:2.2em 0 .4em;padding:6px 0;font-size:.8125rem;font-weight:700}.prose h2#questions-and-answers~h3{border-top:1px solid var(--rule);margin:0;padding:1.1em 0 .4em;font-size:1.25rem;line-height:1.25}.prose h2#questions-and-answers+h3{border-top:0;padding-top:.9em}.prose h2#questions-and-answers~p:last-child{margin-bottom:0}@media (width<=720px){.key-dates dl{grid-template-columns:fit-content(45%) minmax(0,1fr)}.key-dates dt{white-space:normal}}.logo-dot{fill:var(--logo-dot)}:root[data-theme=light]{color-scheme:light}:root[data-theme=dark]{color-scheme:dark}.tagline-bar{position:relative}.theme-toggle{font:inherit;color:var(--ink-soft);cursor:pointer;text-underline-offset:3px;background:0 0;border:0;border-radius:0;padding:4px 0 4px 10px;font-size:.8125rem;line-height:1.2;text-decoration:underline;position:absolute;top:50%;right:0;transform:translateY(-50%)}.theme-toggle:hover{color:var(--accent)}@media (width<=720px){.theme-toggle{font-size:.75rem}}@media (resolution<=1.5x){h1,h2,h3,h4,h1 a,h2 a,h3 a,h4 a{-webkit-text-stroke:.35px currentColor}.section-label,.prose h2#questions-and-answers{-webkit-text-stroke:0}}.sources a{text-underline-offset:3px;text-decoration:underline}